cultural heritage

cultural heritage is a site where old pots and tools are that was used a long time ago. some or most places protects the sites where you are not allowed to take things out of the site or even touch it. you are not allowed to visit such a place without a guide.with a cultural heritage the guides shows people the site but people pays to see the place.

 cultural heritage is a site on like a farm that's protected. nature conservation must protect a heritage site if there is one on the farm. both of them must protect something.

you are not allowed to remove anything from site. if you remove something you can get a fine and/or 6 months in jail. its important to have rules on sites and conservation areas.

if a site is identified you need to register the place. you will know there is a site when you get like parts of pots and tools on the site.

some sites is different than others because of different traditions. people uses different tools and things to make food and use different weapons to get food or to hunt.

ability to participate in a team or group

if you work in a group you need to listen to the others opinions and figure a solution between all of you. if a person has a task to do, another person should not try to take over or just do the task without telling others. if someone needs help you should help them. communication is very important, all members should communicate at all times.

health, safety and security

if a person is sick you need to report it and if it is bad the person should go to the doctor and get medication. this is to prevent that other people get sick in the work place. all the people who work with dangerous tools needs to wear protective clothing. you need to cover you eyes its very important. keep the work place secure by having security people walking around and in the work place. if you see suspicious things and people you have to report it. 

local wildlife

ways you can identify species is by the bark or leaves, flowers and soil,shapes of trees and plants and area. with animals you can look at area and shape the animal is build, colour and the horns. if you only see spoors and dung you can identify the animals that way as well.

animals will be found in the areas where their kind if food is found. the way the animal catch their pray depends on what dangerous wepons they have eg. teeth,claws. different animals has different ways of mating. most animals are aggressive when they have young. animals will run from danger

to keep count of all key plants and animals you need to count them. if you count them its good to take photos ,coordinates and show on map. you need to know if it is a male or female.

you need to wright reports to say where you found them. if the weather is unpleasant the animals will be rare to see. if a animal is old they will stay in one area. when you monitor animals or plants you need to wright a strong and short report.

AIDS/HIV

HIV: Human immunodeficiency virus

AIDS: Acquired immune deficiency syndrome

IDS is the condition whereby the body's specific defense system against all infectious agents no longer functions properly. There is a focused loss over time of immune cell function which allows intrusion by several different infectious agents, the result of which is loss of the ability of the body to fight infection and the subsequent acquisition of diseases such as pneumonia. We will examine the virus itself, the immune system, the specific effect(s) of HIV on the immune system, the research efforts presently being made to investigate this disease, and finally, how one can try to prevent acquiring HIV.

Aids stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. We say that this disease is acquired because it is not an infection that is inherited. It is caused by a virus (the human immunodeficiency virus or HIV) which enters the body from outside.
Immunity refers to the body’s natural inherent ability to defend itself against infection and disease.
Immune deficiency refers to the fact that the body’s immune system has been weakened so that it can no longer defend itself against passing infections.
A syndrome is a medical term which refers to a set or collection of specific signs and symptoms that occur together and that are characteristic of a particular pathological condition.
Although we use the term ‘disease’ when we talk about Aids, Aids, strictly speaking, is not a specific illness. It is really a collection of many different conditions that manifest in the body (or specific parts of the body) because the HI virus has so weakened the body’s immune system that it can no longer fight the pathogen (or disease-causing agent) that invades the body.

Changes in HIV incidence statistics can give an idea of whether prevention strategies are being successful in reducing the number of new infections. A society that shows regularly declining incidence figures is one that is experiencing fewer and fewer new infections, which is certainly desirable.

Trends in HIV prevalence are less easy to interpret.

In the early years of a typical HIV epidemic, prevalence increases rapidly because more and more people are becoming infected and few are dying. But prevalence cannot increase forever - eventually the death rate (number of deaths per year) rises to equal the incidence rate (number of new infections per year), and so prevalence reaches a peak.

In some African countries, HIV prevalence appears to have stabilized at a very high level. This means that two things are happening at the same time: many new infections are occurring and many people are dying. And if a country's total population continues to grow then the number of people living with HIV increases even while the prevalence rate remains stable.

A rise in HIV prevalence is not necessarily a sign of failing prevention campaigns. Besides a rise in incidence, it could result from any of the following:

• The death rate has fallen because of improvements in treatment and care (this has happened in high-income countries).
• The death rate has fallen because fewer infected people are dying as a result of war, famine or other causes that had disproportionately affected people living with HIV.
• The death rate has fallen as a result of an earlier drop in incidence (on average, people survive for a number of years after becoming infected, so incidence trends have a delayed effect on death trends).
• More people living with HIV are imigrating than are emigrating (this affects a number of high-income countries).
• The survey bias has changed.

Equally, a fall in HIV prevalence is not necessarily a sign of effective prevention campaigns, as it could result from an increase in the number of deaths.

It is even possible for HIV prevalence to increase at a time when HIV incidence is decreasing - for example, in a society that is rapidly scaling-up antiretroviral treatment provision while also making improvements to prevention activities. The drop in the number of new infections might then be outweighed by the effect of people living longer.

HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is the virus that causes AIDS. This virus is passed from one person to another through blood-to-blood and sexual contact. In addition, infected pregnant women can pass HIV to their baby during pregnancy or delivery, as well as through breast-feeding. People with HIV have what is called HIV infection. Most of these people will develop AIDS as a result of their HIV infection.

How does your immune system work?

Your immune system works because your body is able to recognize "self" and "non-self." This means that your body is able to tell if an invader (virus, bacteria, parasite, or other another person's tissues) has entered it—even if you aren't consciously aware that anything has happened. Your body recognizes this invader and uses a number of different tactics to destroy it.

What HIV Does

Once the HIV virus enters the body, it heads for the lymphoid tissues, where it finds T-helper cells. Let's look at how the HIV virus infects immune system cells and replicates:

1. Binding - The HIV attaches to the immune cell when the gp120 protein of the HIV virus binds with the CD4 protein of the T-helper cell. The viral core enters the T-helper cell and the virion's protein membrane fuses with the cell membrane.
2. Reverse transcription - The viral enzyme, reverse transcriptase, copies the virus's RNA into DNA.
3. Integration - The newly created DNA is carried into the cell's nucleus by the enzyme, viral integrase, and it binds with cell's DNA. HIV DNA is called a provirus.
4. Transcription - The viral DNA in the nucleus separates and creates messenger RNA (mRNA), using the cell's own enzymes. The mRNA contains the instructions for making new viral proteins.
5. Translation - The mRNA is carried back out of the nucleus by the cell's enzymes. The virus then uses the cell's natural protein-making mechanisms to make long chains of viral proteins and enzymes.
6. Assembly - RNA and viral enzymes gather at the edge of the cell. An enzyme, called protease, cuts the polypeptides into viral proteins.
7. Budding - New HIV virus particles pinch out from the cell membrane and break away with a piece of the cell membrane surrounding them. This is how enveloped viruses leave the cell. In this way, the host cell is not destroyed.

A single HIV particle is called a virion. Its core, called the capsid, contains two single strands of HIV RNA. The core is surrounded by a protective lipid bilayer and this shell is called the viral envelope. Enmeshed in the viral envelope is a complex HIV protein called env. Two glycoproteins make up env and these protrude from the virion. The cap of the protein is called gp120 and the stem is gp41. For HIV to enter a host cell, it must first use gp120 to attach to a CD4 receptor.

HIV is especially lethal because it attacks the very immune system cells (variously called T4, CD4, or T-helper lymphocytes) that would ordinarily fight off such a viral infection. Receptors on these cells appear to enable the viral RNA to enter the cell. HIV is sexually transmitted, and HIV is not the only infection that is passed through intimate sexual contact. Other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), such as gonorrhea, syphilis, herpes, and chlamydia, can also be contracted through anal, vaginal, and oral intercourse. HIV is not solely a problem in Africa. It is a problem worldwide.

The virus attacks specific lymphocytes called T helper cells (also known as T-cells), takes them over, and multiplies. This destroys more T-cells, which damages the body's ability to fight off invading germs and disease.
When the number of T-cells falls to a very low level, people with HIV become more susceptible to other infections and they may get certain types of cancer that a healthy body would normally be able to fight off. This weakened immunity (or immune deficiency) is known as AIDS and can result in severe life-threatening infections, some forms of cancer, and the deterioration of the nervous system.
Although AIDS is always the result of an HIV infection, not everyone with HIV has AIDS. In fact, adults who become infected with HIV may appear healthy for years before they get sick with AIDS.
The window period is the period between the onset of HIV infection and the appearance of detectable antibodies to the virus. In the case of the most sensitive HIV antibody tests currently recommended, the window period is about three to four weeks. This period can, however, be longer.
Any antibody-based blood tests (such as the ELISA, rapid tests and the Western Blot) conducted during this window period may give false negative results.
Antibodies are produced from about three weeks after infection and usually become detectable by four to six weeks after infection. This four- to six-week period between infection and a positive test is called the window period.
This means that although the virus is present in the person's blood there are, as yet, no (detectable) antibodies in the blood. In such cases the tests erroneously show that the person has not been infected. During this window period the individual is already infectious and may unknowingly infect other people. People who are exposed to or who practise high-risk behaviour are well advised to arrange for a repeat test after three to six months - and to use safer sex practices like condoms while waiting for their results.

The timeframe between when you are exposed to HIV to the time you test positive for HIV antibodies can be up to 3-6 months. This period of time is called a “window period” for HIV testing. On average, you may need to wait 2 to 8 weeks from the time of possible exposure to get a an accurate test result, because it takes at least that long for the immune system to develop enough HIV.

As the HIV antibodies will appear only after 3 weeks to 6 months of infection, some infected people will test negative because their body hasn’t got around to producing antibodies. This period of time is referred to as the "window period". To ensure that one does not take the antibody test during the "window period"; one should wait at least 12 weeks (3 months) from the time of possible exposure before taking the test. Anybody who tests negative but thinks that they have been exposed to the virus should consider having another test six months later.

HIV antibody test

HIV antibody tests are the most appropriate test for routine diagnosis of HIV among adults.  Antibody tests are inexpensive and very accurate. The ELISA antibody test (enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent) also known as EIA (enzyme immunoassay) was the first HIV test to be widely used.
"An understanding of vaccine acceptance and uptake is imperative for successful vaccination of populations that will be primary targets for vaccination after a vaccine against HIV is developed and ready for dissemination," researchers wrote. In the current study, the authors reviewed published research of vaccination against vaccine-preventable hepatitis (VPH) among men who have sex with men (MSM), seeing how they might offer insights about future HIV vaccination strategies. The authors sought to explore what is known about vaccination among US MSM in the VPH vaccination literature, and to identify important considerations from these experiences that would require further review as a vaccine against HIV is promoted among MSM.

collect field specimens

We went to the buffalo grassland in front of reception to collect specimens of the soil on the land. There is good soil and bad soil because not all the grass was cut for the bales. We took 20 samples all around the land and not on one spot. We used the “pik” to loosen the soil and then used the spade to make the hole deeper. After the hole is deep enough you scratch the side of the hole and collect that soil. The good soil goes in a bag and the bad soil goes in a bag. You place one bag e.g the good soil and spread it out and then mix it. You take opposite sides and pull it to the other side. You do it on both sides. You place it back in a bag and place a tag on the bag to say what it is. What soil it is, and if you want chemical or biological testing. The date is important. You can say what time of the year you collected it. Make sure you collect a bit of roots as well. Send it to the lab so they can test it. You can test it for biogical or chemical. Biogical is for living things and chemical is for oxygen and so on. You need to mark the area where you collected the soil by marking it. You can put something on a tree or on the side of the land. You can mark it on a map as well and a GPS. You can use different kinds of stuff to collect the soil. You can use electrical stuff to loosen the soil. You can use physical or mechanical ways to collect it. The reason for collecting the soil from top to bottom is so that you can see what is deeper in the ground.